Spengler, civilization is the distinct, final stage of development of any culture. Danilevskii formulated the theory of the general typology of cultures, or civilizations, in accordance with which universal history does not exist, but only the history of given civilizations having an individual, closed character. In the 19th century the concept of civilization was used to a limited extent to characterize capitalism as a whole. The French Enlightenment philosophers applied the term to a society based on the principles of reason and justice. The concept of civilization originated in the 18th century along with the concept of culture. (3) The stage of social development that follows barbarism (L. (2) A level or stage of social development or material and nonmaterial culture, for example, ancient civilization and modern civilization. In Marxist literature the word is also used to designate material culture. Fernández-Armesto, Civilizations: Culture, Ambition, and the Transformation of Nature (2001). Wothnaw, Meaning and Moral Order (1987) F. Sorokin, Social and Cultural Dynamics (1981) R. Many anthropologists now focus on a political factor-the development of hierarchical administrative bureaucracies-as the critical characteristic of all civilizations. However, some civilizations did not have all of these characteristics (e.g., the Classic Maya had no metallurgy, and true writing apparently never emerged in central Mexico or the central Andes). Such characteristics originally emerged in several different parts of the prehistoric world: Mesopotamia, Egypt, China, India, the central Andes, and Mesoamerica.
The specific characteristics of civilization are: food production (plant and animal domestication), metallurgy, a high degree of occupational specialization, writing, and the growth of cities.
Writing appeared, as well as urban centers that accommodated administrators, traders, and other specialists.
At that time, on the basis of agriculture, stock-raising, and metallurgy, intensive occupational specialization began to appear in the river valleys of SW Asia. The term civilization also designates that complex of cultural elements that first appeared in human history between 8,000 and 6,000 years ago. Civilization, culture with a relatively high degree of elaboration and technical development.
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